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Reproductive suppression
Reproductive Suppression involves the prevention or inhibition of reproduction in otherwise healthy adult individuals.〔Wasser, S.K. & Barash, D.P (1983) Reproductive suppression among female mammals: implicaitons for biomedicine and sexual selection theory. The Quarterly Review of Biology 58: 513–538. Quote is from p. 513.〕 It includes delayed sexual maturation (puberty) or inhibition of sexual receptivity, facultatively increased interbirth interval through delayed or inhibited ovulation or spontaneous or induced abortion, abandonment of immature and dependent offspring, mate guarding, selective destruction and worker policing of eggs in some eusocial insects or cooperatively breeding birds, and infanticide (see also infanticide (zoology)), and infanticide in carnivores) of the offspring of subordinate females either by directly killing by dominant females or males in mammals or indirectly through the withholding of assistance with infant care in marmosets and some carnivores.〔Saltzman, W., Leidl, K.J., Salper, O.J., Pick, R.R., Abbott, D.H. (2008) Hormones and Behavior 53: 274-286.〕〔Saltzman, W., Digby, L.J., Abbott, D.H. (2009) Reproductive skew in female common marmosets: what can proximate mechanisms tell us about ultimate causes. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 276: 389-399.〕
The ''Reproductive Suppression Model'' argues that “females can optimize their lifetime reproductive success by suppressing reproduction when future (or social ) conditions for the survival of offspring are likely to be greatly improved over present ones”.〔 When intragroup competition (competition between individuals belonging to the same group) is high it may be beneficial to suppress the reproduction of others, and for subordinate females to suppress their own reproduction until a later time when social competition is reduced. This leads to reproductive skew within a social group, with some individuals having more offspring than others. The cost of reproductive suppression to the individual is lowest at the earliest stages of a reproductive event and reproductive suppression is often easiest to induce at the pre-ovulatory or earliest stages of pregnancy in mammals, and greatest after a birth. Therefore, neuroendocrine cues for assessing reproductive success should evolve to be reliable at early stages in the ovulatory cycle.
Reproductive suppression occurs in its most extreme form in eusocial insects such as termites, hornets and bees and the mammalian naked mole rat which depend on a complex division of labor within the group for survival and in which specific genes, epigenetics and other factors are known to determine whether individuals will permanently be unable to breed or able to reach reproductive maturity under particular social conditions,〔Korb, J., Weil, T., Hoffman, K., Foster, K.R., Rehli, M. (2009) A gene necessary for reproductive suppression in termites. Science 324: 758.〕〔Jarosch, A., Stole, E., Crewe, R.., and Moritz, R.F.A. (2011) Alternative splicing of a single transcription factor drives selfish reproductive behavior in honeybee workers (''Apis mellifera'') (2011) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences – 108: 15282–15287.〕〔Faulkes, C.G. & Bennet, N.C. (2001) Family values: group dynamics and social control of reproduction in African mole-rates. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16 (4) April: 184–190.〕 and cooperatively breeding fish, birds and mammals in which a breeding pair depends on helpers whose reproduction is suppressed for the survival of their own offspring.〔Koenig, W.D., Mumme, R.L., Stanback, .T., and Pitelka, F.A. (1995) Patterns and consequences of egg destruction among joint-nesting acorn woodpeckers. Animal Behaviour 50: 607–621.〕〔Hradecky, P. (1985) Possible pheromonal regulation of reproduction in wild carnivores. Journal of Chemical Ecology 11: 241–250.〕〔Creel, S.R. & Creel, N.M. (1991) Energetics, reproductive suppression and obligate communal breeding in carnivores. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 28:263-270.〕〔Doolan, S.P. & MacDonald, D.W. (1997) Band structure and failures of reproductive suppression in a cooperatively breeding carnivore, the slender-tailed meerkat (''Suricata suricatta'') Behaviour 134: 827–848.〕〔Garber, P.A. (1997) One for all and breeding for one: cooperation and competition as a tamarin reproductive strategy. Evolutionary Anthropology 5: 187–199.〕〔Clutton-Brock, T.H., Brotherton, P.N.M., Smith, R. McIlrath G., Kansky R.,Gaynor D., O’Riain M.J., Skinner, J.D. (1998) Infanticide and expulsion of females in a cooperative mammal. Proceedings Royal Society of London Ser B Biological Science 265:2291–2295.〕〔Cant, M.A. (2000) Social control of reproduction in banded mongooses. Animal Behavior 59: 147–158.〕〔Young, A.J., Carlson, A.a., Monfort, S.L., Russell, A. F., Bennett, N.C., and Clutton-Brock, T. (2005) Stress and the suppression of subordinate reproduction in cooperatively breeding meerkats. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103: 12005–12010.〕〔Spiering, P.A., Somers, M.J., Maldonado, J.E., Wildt, D.E., Gunter, M.S. (2010) Reproductive sharing and proximate factors mediating cooperative breeding in the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) Behavioral Ecology Sociobiology 64:583–592.〕〔Schradin, C. and Pillay, N. (2014) Absence of reproductive suppression in young adult female striped mice living in their natal family. Animal Behaviour 90: 141–148.〕 In eusocial and cooperatively breeding animals most non-reproducing helpers engage in kin selection, enhancing their own inclusive fitness by ensuring the survival of offspring they are closely related to.〔Hamilton WD (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. Journal of Theoretical Biology: 7: 1–16.〕 Wolf packs suppress subordinate breeding.
==Pre-fertilization mechanisms of reproductive suppression==
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